European Union

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The European Union (EU) is a sui generis supranational union, made up of twenty-seven European countries. It was established as the European Economic Community in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome and has undergone many changes since, most notably in 1992 by the Maastricht Treaty. Since 1957 new accessions have raised the number of member states, and powers have expanded. As a result, the EU can be described as both a supranational and an intergovernmental body.

The EU has a single market between member states with a common trade policy,^[2] a Common Agricultural/Fisheries Policy, and a regional development policy.^[3] It introduced a common currency, the euro, which has been adopted by thirteen member states. Since 1993, the EU has developed a limited Common Foreign and Security Policy, and co-operation in police and judicial matters.

Important EU institutions and bodies include the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, including the European Council, the European Court of Justice and the European Central Bank. Citizens of EU member states are also EU citizens. EU citizens directly elect the European Parliament every five years. EU citizens can freely invest, live, travel, and work in other member states (with some temporary restrictions on new member states^[4]). Passport control and customs checks between most member states were abolished in the Schengen Agreement.^[5]

[edit] History

Main article: History of the European Union

In 1945, at the end of the Second World War, Europe was marked by unprecedented devastation and human suffering. It faced new political challenges, in particular reconciliation among the peoples of Europe and the growing political division between the USA and the USSR, two ideologically-opposed superpowers. This situation favoured a long held idea of European unification through the creation of common institutions.

In a speech at the University of Zurich in 1946, Winston Churchill called for a United States of Europe and the creation of a Council of Europe. The latter was established in Strasbourg on 5 May 1949 as the first European institution. The Schuman Declaration, based on a plan by Jean Monnet and signed 9 May 1950, gave rise to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The aim of the ECSC was to integrate the markets for the industrial resources necessary for reconstruction of Europe, and the production of weapons of war. The founding members of the community, who signed the Treaty of Paris (1951), were Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg (who already co-operated as the Benelux countries), France, Italy and West Germany.^[6][7]

Two additional communities were created by the Treaties of Rome in 1957; the European Economic Community (EEC), establishing a Customs Union and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) for cooperation in nuclear energy. The ECSC and Euratom were merged into the EEC in 1967 with the signing of the Merger Treaty. They had a single membership with a combined set of treaties and institutions, and the collective was referred to as the European Communities (now, the European Community, within the EU).^[8][9][10]

In 1973 the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom.^[11]In 1979 the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held.^[12] Greece, Spain and Portugal joined in the 1980s.^[13] In 1985 the Schengen Agreement was developed among European states to allow for the abolition of systematic border controls between the participating countries. It also included provisions for common policy on the temporary entry of persons (including the Schengen Visa), the harmonisation of external border controls, and cross-border police co-operation. The agreement has been subsequently signed by 30 states, including most EU member states and three non-EU members (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland). In the same year, Jacques Delors became President of the European Commission. Serving until 1995, his commission is the longest serving and is considered by some as the most successful, a gold standard by which future Commissions are judged in giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism.^[14]

By 2007 15 member states had implemented the agreement. The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom take part only in the police co-operation measures and not in common border control and visa provisions.^[15] In 1986 the European flag was adopted and leaders signed the Single European Act. In 1989, Germany reunified after the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the former East Germany joined the enlarged Germany in EU membership. With enlargement toward eastern Europe on the agenda, the Copenhagen Criteria were agreed and the Maastricht Treaty formally established the EU on 1 November 1993. With that treaty, the European Community became one of three pillars of the EU, alongside new areas of integration: foreign policy and interior affairs.^[16][17]

In 1994 the European Economic Area was established, allowing the non-members Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway access to the EU's single market. In 1995 Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the EU. The Amsterdam Treaty was signed in 1999, shortly after the resignation of the Santer Commission. In the same year the euro was introduced for bank transfers, and euro coins and banknotes replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states in 2002. In 2003 the Nice Treaty came into force, followed a year later by the accession of ten countries (eight central and eastern European countries plus Malta and Cyprus).^[17][18]

Later in 2004, the European Constitution was signed in Rome, though it was never fully ratified after rejection by French and Dutch voters in referendums. In 2007, it was agreed to replace that proposal with a new Reform Treaty (or "Lisbon Treaty") that would not have constitutional elements but would reform existing treaties. At the start of that year Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU and the euro was adopted by Slovenia. It was agreed to allow Cyprus and Malta to adopt the euro at the start of 2008.^[18]

[edit] Geography

Main article: Geography of the European Union

The territory of the EU consists of the combined territories of its 27 member states with significant exceptions outlined below. The territory of the EU is not the same as that of Europe, as significant parts of the continent, such as Switzerland, Norway and European Russia, are outside the EU, and some overseas territories are part of the EU while not being geographically part of Europe. The EU's member countries cover a combined area of 4,422,773 square kilometres (1,707,642 sq mi).^[19] The total territory of the EU is the seventh largest territory in the world by area. The landscape, climate and economy of the EU are heavily influenced by its long coastline, which is 65,992.9 kilometres (41,006 mi) long. It is the second longest coastline, after Canada. The combined member states of the EU share land borders with 21 EU non-member states which total 12,440.8 kilometres (7,730 mi), the fifth longest border in the world.^[20][21][22]

Some parts of member countries are not part of the EU, although they are part of the European continent. Examples include the Channel Islands and Faroe Islands. Several territories associated with member states that are outside geographic Europe are also not part of the EU (such as Greenland, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles and all the non-European territories associated with the United Kingdom). On the other hand, some overseas territories are formally part of the EU even if they are not geographically part of Europe, such as the Azores, the Canary Islands, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Madeira, Martinique and Réunion.^[23][24][25]

Including overseas territories of member states, the EU includes most types of climate from Arctic to tropical, rendering meaningless meteorological averages for the EU as a whole. The majority of the population lives either in areas with a Mediterranean climate (southern Europe), a temperate maritime climate (Western Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (in eastern member states).^[26]

[edit] Member states

Main articles: European Union member state and Enlargement of the European Union

The European Coal and Steel Community was founded in 1952 by six countries. Between 1973 and 2007 there have been six waves of enlargement bringing the current membership up to 27. The largest enlargement occurred in 2004 when 10 members joined at the same time.^[27] There are currently three official candidate countries, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey. In addition the western Balkan countries of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia are officially recognised as potential candidates.^[28] The Copenhagen criteria allow any European country to apply. While Croatia's accession is moving along relatively smoothly, Turkey is facing strong opposition from some quarters, notably from the French President, Nicolas Sarkozy.^[29] The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia officially states that it is expecting to join the Union in a few years. However, for its accession a number of obstacles must be overcome, including the dispute with Greece over its very name.^[30]

To join the EU, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council. These require a stable democracy respecting human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy capable of competition within the Union and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU laws. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria rests with the European Council.^[31] Enlargement has been seen as a positive force by many, for example in democratising Eastern Europe^[32] and causing war crimes suspects in the former Yugoslavia to be brought to the ICTY.^[33]

     Member states

     Candidates

Austria

Poland

Belgium

Bulgaria

Croatia

Cyprus

Czech
  Rep.

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

Outermost
Regions

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Rep.
Ireland

Italy

Latvia

Lithuania

Lux.

FYROM

Malta

Neth.

Portugal

Romania

Slovakia

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden

Turkey

United
Kingdom

[edit] Politics

Main article: Politics of the European Union

The politics of the EU primarily cover the economy, which is reminiscent of its history originating in a series of economic communities after the Second World War. When the Maastricht Treaty established the EU, the scope was expanded to the pillar system whereby foreign and home affairs were added to the intergovernmental domain of the EU.^[35] Political direction in the EU is given by the European Council, headed by the rotating presidency.^[36] Citizens participate through the European Parliament which is elected every five years.^[37]

The expansion of the EU has been seen as a means for promoting and reinforcing peace and democracy on the European continent following the Second World War and later after the decline of the Soviet Union. Another aim of the EU has always been to increase its economic prosperity.^[32] There is disagreement on how far the EU should expand however. Some favour further enlargement to continue using the positive influence membership prospects have on neighbouring countries, while others fear "over-streach". Some believe the European public in particular are suffering from "enlargement fatigue" following the accession of 10 members in 2004.^[38] Turkey is a particularly controversial topic, considering its large population, low standard of living, Muslim culture, geographical position and ongoing disagreements over Cyprus. The country began negotiations to join in 2005.^[39]

Accession to the European treaties necessarily means to give over some powers from the national government to an international organisation (as is the case for all international treaties). The powers that passed from national governments to the EU are large compared to most international treaties. The ongoing integration of Europe is becoming contested on the grounds that it reduces members' national sovereignty too much.^[40] Enlargement together with integration (new treaties) are seen by some as parallel processes, vital to the EU or it will fail: this is known as the "bicycle theory".^[41]

To govern and guide the ongoing integration and the larger number of members states the European Constitution was proposed. However ratification of this treaty was rejected by Dutch and French voters.^[42] By the end of 2007, a new "Reform Treaty" should agreed upon by the leaders to come into force in 2009. The new treaty would carry out most of the reforms envisaged in the Constitutions but without the constitutional elements and would add to, not replace, the existing treaties.^[43]

In discussions on reform, there has been a desire to address the democratic deficit of the EU through the development of citizenship of the EU. Citizens have a number or rights including the right to vote and to stand as candidates in local government and European Parliament elections in any member state.^[44] However there has been falling turnout at elections, with few political structures at EU level and no cohesive European civil society. Commissioner for Communication Strategy, Margot Wallström, has been one notable figure attempting to correct this situation.^[45] Her plans allow European political parties, instead of national parties running for EU parliament, would be allowed to campaign in the different countries and thus give these supranational parties greater ability for them to run with candidates for Commission President.^[46]

A further important political issues concerns the EU budget. The Financial Perspective for 2007–2013 was defined in 2005 when EU members agreed to fix the common budget to 1.045% of the European GDP.^[47] However there are long running disputes over the Common Agricultural Policy and the UK rebate. The UK rebate is a special discount on the UK contributions to the EU budget. The rebate was allowed as the UK was receiving relatively little agricultural support compared to other countries. The agricultural policy has historically dominated much of the EU's spending. Reduction of the agricultural spending and abolition of the UK rebate are listed as important reforms of the system by various groups. This is however problematic as unanimity is required to change these agreements, meaning that both the gross receivers from agricultural policies and the UK have to give up a privileged position. So far no agreement has been reached.^[48]

[edit] Institutions and bodies

Main article: Institutions of the European Union

The EU is governed by a number of institutions, primarily the Commission, Council and Parliament. The European Commission acts as the executive branch. It is currently composed of 27 commissioners, one from each member state. The commission is responsible for drafting all proposed rules in order to co-ordinate European Law. It also controls some agencies and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the Union. The president of the commission is nominated by the European Council, and confirmed by the Parliament.^[49]

The Council of the European Union (also known as the Council of Ministers) forms one half of the EU's legislative branch, the other being the Parliament. It is composed of the national ministers responsible for the area of EU law being addressed. For example, European legislation regarding agriculture would be treated by a Council composed of the national ministers for agriculture. The body's presidency rotates between the member states every six months. To increase stability the current president member state co-operates with both the previous and the next president member state.^[50] It should not be confused with the European Council, which is not an official institution (although the European Council is an important body and shares its presidency with that of the Council of the EU). It is composed of the heads of government and the President of the European Commission. The European Council meets four times a year.^[36] The other half of the legislative branch is the European Parliament and is the only Union body composed of representatives directly elected by the citizens of the EU member states. Every five years citizens in all member states elect 785 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) who form the second half of the EU's legislative branch. Although the elections are for national candidates, the members of the parliament have seats according to political ideals rather than nationality. The chair of the parliament is elected by its members.^[37]

The Judicial branch of the EU consists primarily of the European Court of Justice composed of 27 judges, one judge being nominated by each member-state. The president is elected from the judges. Below the Court of Justice there is a lower court called the Court of First Instance created to reduce the work load of the Court of Justice. There is also the European Court of Auditors, which monitors the EU's accounts.^[51][52]

Other bodies include the European Central Bank and the two advisory committees: the Committee of the Regions and the Economic and Social Committee.^[53][54] The European Central Bank (ECB) controls the monetary policy within the Eurozone (member states that have adopted the euro as currency). It was established in 1998 and has its headquarters located in Frankfurt, Germany.^[55]

There is no official capital of the EU. The locations of the institutions are spread across many cities and several member states. However, Brussels is often considered the de facto capital as most of the primary institutions are concentrated there,^[56] including the Commission and the Council. The Parliament is partly based in the city but has its official seat in Strasbourg, holding at least twelve plenary sessions of one week each year. Luxembourg city plays host to all the EU's courts and a number of other departments and bodies.^[57]

[edit] European Community

Main article: European Community

The European Community is the oldest supranational element of the EU. The community is the direct successor of the European Economic Community, and is now the first pillar of the EU. It is within this pillar where certain elements of sovereignty are pooled and controlled by supranational institutions such as the Commission and Parliament. For example, within matters where sovereignty is given to the Community, the Commission has the sole right to initiate legislation. Other matters, such as home affairs, fall within the responsibility of an intergovernmental agreement between the members. The principle of subsidiarity in this pillar is designed to ensure that decisions are taken at the lowest level of government.^[58] In the Amsterdam Treaty, some powers were moved from the third pillar to the Community^[35] and in 2007, the Court of Justice ruled that the Community has powers to propose legislation for criminal law.^[59]

A prominent political goal of the EU is the development and maintenance of an effective single market, ensuring free movement of people, goods, services and capital.^[60] Legislation over the years has harmonised standards and liberalised markets. However, not all changes have been equally welcomed, for example the Bolkestein directive faced protests over its liberalisation of services.^[20] The single market is extended to non EU members through the European Economic Area (EEA) treaties. Through this treaty Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway accept certain elements of EU law.^[61]

In addition to EU commission policies such as the agricultural policy, and the Common Fisheries Policy, there are a number of Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds aimed at promotion of the development of poorer, underdeveloped, regions across the Union. Currently these regions are primarily located in the new member states of eastern Europe.^[62] The EU is sponsoring research through its Framework Programmes dealing with research and technological development working towards a European Research Area.^[63] Other funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to EU standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), support to the commonwealth of independent states (TACIS).

With regard to the powers of the European Commission, there has been a desire to address the democratic deficit of the EU through the development of citizenship of the EU. Citizens have a number or rights including the right to vote and to stand as candidates in local government and European Parliament elections in any member state.^[44] However there has been falling turnout at elections, with few political structures at EU level and no cohesive European civil society. Commissioner for Communication Strategy, Margot Wallström, has been one notable figure attempting to correct this situation.^[45] Her plans allow European political parties, instead of national parties running for EU parliament, would be allowed to campaign in the different countries and thus give these supranational parties greater ability for them to run with candidates for Commission President.^[46]

[edit] Common Foreign and Security Policy

Main articles: Common Foreign and Security Policy and Foreign relations of the European Union

Defence and security are traditionally matters of national sovereignty. EU policies in this area were established as the second of the three pillars in the Maastricht Treaty of 1992. The Common Foreign and Security Policy or CFSP were further defined and broadened in the Amsterdam Treaty of 1997. The Amsterdam treaty defined five objectives for the CFSP: to safeguard the common values, fundamental interests, independence and integrity of the European Union in conformity with the principles of the United Nations Charter; to strengthen the security of the Union in all ways; to preserve peace and strengthen international security, in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter, as well as the principles of the Helsinki Final Act and the objectives of the Paris Charter, including those on external borders; to promote international co-operation; to develop and consolidate democracy and the rule of law, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; the foreign and security policy is coordinated by the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy, currently Javier Solana.^[64]

Foreign policy is agreed upon on an inter-governmental basis. This can lead to differing national policies which happened for example regarding Iraq.^[65] Besides emerging international policy, the international effect of the Union is felt through Enlargement. The potential benefits of becoming member is considered a major factor contributing to reform and stabilisation of former Communist countries in Eastern Europe.^[32] The Union is also the largest contributor of humanitarian aid in the world. In 2005 the Commission's aid agency (ECHO), together with additional support by the individual member states, contributed €43 billion in aid, much of it being provided through the European Development Fund.^[66] These factors influencing other countries are generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".^[67]

Along side its foreign and security policy, the Commission is gaining greater representation in international bodies such as the United Nations, where it has influence over areas such as aid due to its large contributions in that field,^[46] and the G8, in which the Commission and Council Presidents have non-voting representation.^[68] Generic representation is primarily through the European Commissioner for External Relations, who works along side the High Representative. However in the World Trade Organization (WTO), where all 27 member states are represented, the EU as a body is represented by Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson.^[69]

[edit] Police and Judicial Co-operation

Main article: Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters

The third of the three pillars of the EU focuses on cooperation in criminal matters, including sharing of intelligence (through Europol and the Schengen Information System), agreement on common definition of criminal offences and expedited extradition procedures. It is the EU instrument of law enforcement and fighting racism. Eurojust is a mirror organisation to Europol, dealing the judicial matters. The police and judicial pillar was created as the Justice and Home Affairs pillar in the Treaty of Maastricht. Some issues were subsequently transferred in the Amsterdam Treaty transferred to the integrated first (European Community) pillar, including the areas of illegal immigration, visas, asylum, and judicial co-operation. The term Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJC) now covers these integrated fields as well as the intergovernmental third pillar.^[70][71][35]

[edit] Treaties and law

Further information: European Union law, Treaties of the European Union, and Citizenship of the European Union

EU law is the first and only example of a supranational legal framework. The European Court of Justice ruled in one of its earliest cases that EU law constitutes "a new legal order of international law".^[72] By becoming EU members, sovereign nation states cede authority to the EU for the mutual social and economic benefit of their people.^[73] EU law follows the principle of subsidiarity, which means that laws are only passed at European when these are more effective compared to legislation of member states themselves,^[74] while EU law is supreme in specific fields (which was extended to encompass criminal law in 2005).^[75]

The two main treaties that form the basis of EU law are the Treaty of the European Community (also know as the Treaty of Rome) from 1957, and the Treaty of the European Union (or the Maastricht treaty) from 1992. The Treaty of Rome deals with the "first pillar" of the EU: the competence of the "European Community" to act in the social and economic arena. The Maastricht treaty created the European Union and added two further "pillars:" the competence of the EU in relation to foreign and security policy, and the competence in relation to justice and home affairs. For legislation within these two latter pillars, a consensus among member states is required.^[76]

EU law covers a broad range of topics, often as broad as the legislation of the member states.^[24] Where a conflict arises between EU law and the law of a member state, EU law takes precedence.^[77][75] Both the provisions of the Treaties, and EU regulations are said to have "direct effect" horizontally. This means that private citizens can call upon the rights granted to them (and the duties created for them) by EU legislation. For instance, an air hostess could sue her employer for sexual discrimination based on legislation provided in EU treaties.^[78] The other legal instrument of the EU, called "directives", also have a direct effect but only "vertically". This means that private citizens cannot call upon their rights based upon EU directives, but that directives can only be addressed through the member state.^[79] Directives allow some choice for member states in the way they translate a directive into national law. Once this has happened citizens may rely on that national law or if the national law does not reflect the EU directive, they may sue the national government ("vertically") for the failure in implementing a directive correctly.^[79][80] An example of a directive is the EU Copyright directive (2001/29/EC), which harmonises the different national copyright laws across the EU.

[edit] Military

Main articles: European Security and Defence Policy and Military of the European Union

The EU itself has limited military capability of its own. Member states are responsible for their own territorial defence, along side NATO which provides common military capabilities and assurances. However the membership of NATO and the EU are not identical. Further more, the Western European Union (WEU) is a separate European security organisation related to the EU. In 1992, the WEU's relationship to the EU was defined, with the EU giving it the "Petersberg tasks" (humanitarian missions such as peacekeeping and crisis management). The tasks were later transferred from the WEU to the EU by the Amsterdam Treaty, they formed part of the new CFSP and the European Security and Defence Policy. Elements of the WEU is currently being merged into the EU's CFSP, the President of the WEU is currently CFSP High Representative.^[81][82]

Following the Kosovo war in 1999, the European Council agreed that ""the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO." To that end, a number of independent forces have been created, answerable to the European Council rather than NATO or member states. These include a 60,000-member European Rapid Reaction Force and EU Battlegroups of 15,000 men.^[83] Forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from Africa to the former Yugoslavia and the middle east.^[84] Furthermore, there are a number of support bodies including the European Defence Agency, satellite centre and the military staff.^[85]

[edit] Economy

Main article: Economy of the European Union

The EU was created first and foremost as an economic union. Its combined single market is notionally the largest economy in the world, with an estimated nominal GDP of 11.6 euro (USD14.5) trillion in 2006 (compared to the second largest economy, the United States, with a GDP of $13.2 trillion).^[1] The European Union is the largest exporter in the world and the second largest importer.^[86] It is the biggest trading partner to many countries, such as China^[87] and India.^[88]

Within the EU's market, which extends to Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway via the European Economic Area, four freedoms are guaranteed: free movement of goods, services, capital and persons.^[89] To aid this, 13 members of the EU have adopted a common currency, the euro. Together they are called the eurozone and they have a common European Central Bank, although the currency is used by a number of other countries outside of the Union.^[90][91] The OECD has projected that in 2007 the eurozone will grow by 2.7%, faster than the projected 2.1% growth in the United States.^[92]In 2006, 2 million of the 3 million jobs created in the EU were in the eurozone, although the eurozone economy is set to grow 2.4%, slightly slower than the EU as a whole, at 2.7%.^[93]

There are substantial economic disparities across the EU, reflecting the different economies of its member states. Even corrected for purchasing power, the difference between the richest and poorest regions (NUTS-2 & 3) is about a factor of ten; Frankfurt has €68,751 PPP per capita, Paris €67,980,^[94] and Inner London €65,138. While Romania's Nord-Est has €5,070 PPP per capita and Bulgaria's Severozapaden has €5,502 PPP per capita.^[95] By comparison, United States GDP per capita is 35% higher than the EU average and the Japanese GDP per capita is approximately 15% higher.^[96]

[edit] Infrastructure

See also: Energy policy of the European Union and Renewable energy in the European Union

The EU has been a legislative power in the area of energy policy for many years. This involvement evolved from of the European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005 and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.^[97] The EU currently imports 82% of its oil and 57% of its gas, making it the world's leading importer of these fuels.^[98] In 2007, member states legally bound the EU to use 20% renewable energy and cut carbon dioxide emissions by at least 20% from 1990 levels, by 2020.^[99] In 2020, one-tenth of all cars and trucks in EU 27 are agreed to be running on biofuels. This is considered to be one of the most ambitious moves by large industrialised regions to fight global warming.^[100]

The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, TGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Oresund bridge and the Brenner Base Tunnel. In 2001 it was estimated that by 2010 the network would cover: 75,200 km of roads; 78,00 kilometers of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 inside harbors.^[101][102] In developing European transport policy, there are environmental pressures on proposals to increase the transport network. With enlargement, a problem policy has had to tackle is the differences between the older and newer member states. In the EU 15, there is a major problem with congestion and pollution. While in the states that joined since 2004, the problem is accessibility.^[103] The Polish road network in particular was in poor condition. From accession, 4,600 roads needed to be upgraded to EU standards with an approximate expenditure of 17 billion euro.^[104]

Another project is the Galileo positioning system. Galileo is a proposed satellite Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the European Union and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). Galileo was launched to reduce the Unions dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System. Galileo extends its cooperation to other nations outside the EU and is to be operational by 2010.^[105] It has however been criticised by some due to costs, delays, and a perception of it being redundant due to the existing GPS system.^[106]

[edit] Demographics

Main article: Demographics of the European Union

The population of the EU is that of its member states, and changes with each accession (or, more rarely, secession). As members have their own demographic make-up, changes in members also affect demographic averages such as life expectancy and fertility rate, hence the demographic of the EU may change relatively fast. The combined population of all 27 member countries was approximately 492.9 million in 2006.^[107] Of the current three candidates members only accession of Turkey would significantly increase this number, by about 72 million, or 14.7%.^[108] Between 2004 and 2025 the population of the EU 25 is expected increase by approximately 13 million. This increase be will primarily be due to net immigration, which is present in most European countries.

With its large population (7.3% of the world's population) living on just 3% of the land surface, the EU is one of the most densely populated regions of the world. Eighty percent live in an urban area and a third live in cities of over a million people.^[109] The Union is home to more global cities than any other region in the world^[110] and 16 cities with populations of over one million (using city proper figures). However, different countries deal differently with large cities. Athens, for example, has about four million inhabitants, but it has been divided into many municipalities making the city proper of Athens one of the smaller European capitals, with about 800,000 inhabitants. Densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cites and are now encompassing large metropolitan areas are Rhine-Ruhr having approximately 10.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad approx. 7 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Flemish Diamond approx 5.5 million (Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent et al.), Frankfurt Rhine Main Area approx. 4 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.) and the Upper Silesian Industry Area approx. 3.5 million. (Katowice, Sosnowiec et al.).^[111]

[edit] Languages

Main article: Languages of the European Union

The EU has 23 official and working languages: Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish.^[113] Translation of important documents, such a legislation, take place in every official language. However some institutions choose only a handful of languages as internal working languages. The European Parliament however provides translation into all languages for documents and its plenary sessions.^[114] Language policy is the responsibility of member states, but EU institutions promote the learning of other languages.^[115][116]

German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (about 81 million people, as of 2006) followed by English, French, and Italian. English is by far the most spoken foreign language, while German and French follow. 56% of EU citizens are able to hold a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.^[112] Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo-European language family, except Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, which belong to the Uralic language family, and Maltese, which is a Semitic language. EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian, written in Cyrillic, and Greek, written in the Greek alphabet.^[117]

There are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people.^[117] Of these, only the Spanish regional languages: Catalan, Galician, and Basque can be used in the communication of the citizens with the Council of the European Union, the Commission, the Economic and Social Committee, the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman, as well as in the workings of the Committee of the Regions.^[118] Though regional and minorities languages can benefit from EU programmes, protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the individual member states. A wide variety of languages from other parts of the world are spoken by immigrant communities in EU countries. Turkish, Maghreb Arabic, Russian, Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Tamil, Ukrainian, and Balkan languages are spoken in many parts of the EU. Many older immigrant communities are bilingual in the local language and in that of their community. Migrant languages are not given formal status or recognition in the EU or in the EU countries, although since 2007 they have been eligible for support from the language teaching section of the EU's Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-2013^[117]

[edit] Religion

Further information: Religion in the European Union

The EU is a secular body, with no formal connections to any religion and no mention of religion in any current or proposed treaty.^[24] Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Reform Treaty have included proposals to mention Christianity and/or God in the preamble of the text. However this idea has faced opposition and has thus been dropped.^[119] The desire for a reference stems from Christianity being the dominant religion in Europe. European Christianity can be roughly divided into Roman Catholicism, a wide range of Protestant churches (especially in northern Europe) and Eastern Orthodoxy (in south eastern Europe).^[120] Other religions such as Judaism and Islam are also present. In 2002 the EU had an estimated Jewish population of roughly over a million^[121] and a Muslim population in 2006 of 16 million people.^[122]

Despite the a majority of citizens having some form of belief system only 21% see it as important.^[123] There is increasing atheism or agnosticism among the general population in Europe, with falling attendance and membership in many countries.^[123][124] In 2005, a survey of the EU's members at that time found that of the EU citizens, 52% believe in a god, 27% in some sort of spirit or life force and 18% had no form of belief. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%) and Estonia (16%).^[125] In such countries, even those who have a faith can be disdainful of organized religion.^[126] The most religious societies are those in Malta with 95% (predominantly Roman Catholic), and Cyprus and Romania both with about 90% of citizens believing in a god. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with religious upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education, those leaning towards right-wing politics, and those reflecting more upon philosophical and ethical issues.^[125]

[edit] Culture

Further information: Culture of Europe and Cultural policies of the European Union

The EU has no specific culture or cultural history, other than those of its member states, so EU culture is intertwined with the culture of Europe. Within the EU, supporters of European integration often appeal to a shared European historical/cultural heritage, typically including Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, the feudalism of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Age of Enlightenment, 19th century Liberalism and (sometimes) negative elements such as the World Wars. European values are assumed to be grounded in this shared heritage.^[127] This heritage can often be invoked to encourage a sense of shared heritage and pride in it: in March 2007, for the 50th anniversary of the Treaties of Rome, a piece of art from each state were gathered in Rome for a special exhibition. Such art included Per Kirkeby's Prophecy on Venice, Jan Matejko's The Constitution of May 3, 1791, Eerik Haamer's Family in the Water J.M.W. Turner's The Arrival of Louis-Philippe at Portsmouth, 8 October 1844 and Auguste Rodin's The Thinker.^[128] Displays of such artwork can also be see on euro coins, where countries choose to depict a symbol of national pride such as a building or artist, for example France Prešeren, Katedrala svobode, the Vitruvian Man or Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.^[129]

Whereas there is some agreement on the historical areas in the history of Europe, the status of Christianity as an essential element in 'European heritage' is more controversial. Adopting Christianity as an essential part of European culture may relate unfavourable to the accession of the secular, but largely Muslim, Turkey to the EU. People in favour of Turkish accession argue that this would show beyond doubt that EU is not an exclusively 'Christian club', while opponents use the non-Christian culture of Turkey as an argument against its possible membership.^[130]

Cultural attitudes and values of the EU population are diverse, influenced not necessarily by nationality but by social class, religion, level of education, and ethnicity. Hence cultural attitudes are neither necessarily European nor national in character. The motivation of member states in EU participation is mainly economic and political in nature. The EU in itself has little common culture, other than the culture that is also shared with the rest of Europe or even beyond. Cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and an emphasis on tolerance and consensus are part of the common culture being developed by the European Union.^[131]

There is however some EU cultural cooperation. Cultural cooperation between member states has become a community competency since its inclusion in 1992 in the Maastricht Treaty.^[132] Actions taken in the cultural area by the European Union include the Culture 2000 7-year programme,^[132] the European Cultural Month event,^[133] the Media Plus programme,^[134] orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra^[135] and the European Capital of Culture programme — where one or more cities in the EU are selected for one year to assist cultural development of the city.^[136] In addition, the Union gives grants to cultural projects (233 in 2004) and has launched a Web portal dedicated to Europe and Culture, responding to the European Council's expressed desire to see the Commission and the member states "promote the networking of cultural information to enable all citizens to access European cultural content by the most advanced technological means."^[137]

[edit] Sports

Main article: Sport policies of the European Union

Sport policy is largely the domain of the member states, with the EU mostly playing an indirect role. Recently the EU launched an anti-doping convention. The role of the EU might increase in the future, if (for example) the Reform Treaty were to be ratified by all member states.^[138] Other policies of the EU have had an impact on sports, such as the freedom of employment which was at the core of the Bosman ruling, which prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with EU nationality.^[139]

Various spectator sports are popular throughout Europe, such as football. In the same manner artistic heritage is drawn on by the EU, football has also been drawn on. On 9 February 2007, for the 50th anniversary of the Rome Treaty, a European football team was formed to take on Manchester United Football Club in a friendly match. It was also Manchester's 50th anniversary since it first participated in the UEFA cup. The "Europe XI" team coach described the importance of the game to Europe in the following terms: "Football brings people together. In a continent so proud of its cultural diversity, football offers a common language. It helps to integrate different communities. At its best, our sport conveys some of Europe’s basic values: the rule of law, respect for others, freedom of expression, teamwork and solidarity."^[140] Although the combined team was a one off for that event, Commission President Romano Prodi proposed that the national teams entering the 2008 Olympics in Beijing carry the European flag in addition to their national flag as a shown of unity. In the 2004 Athens Olympics, EU teams won 280 medals.^[141]

[edit] Education

Further information: Education in the European Union

Both education and science are areas where the individual members hold the legislative powers, and where the EU itself is limited to supporting actions.^[24] The activity of the Union in education began cautiously, as pilot actions to help member states develop educational policy in areas of common challenges. It developed in the 1980s into programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the ERASMUS programme. Erasmus began in 1987 to ease exchanges between European universities. In its first 20 years it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and become a symbol of Europe and student life. In France, where 217,000 students have participated, the programme became the subject of a film in 2002, L'Auberge espagnole.^[142][143]

In 1996, the European Year of Lifelong Learning was held, and with this a process to encourage member countries to think together about their education and training strategies. The Erasmus program has now been combined with similar programs for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-2013. The purpose of these exchange and mobility activities is partly to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries, their habits and systems; and partly to spread good practices in the education and training fields. The programme is managed through an Executive Agency^[144] and through a series of National Agencies.^[145]

Until 2000 and the adoption of the Lisbon Strategy, the EU provided little in the field of direct policy support for education. However, following the conclusions of the European Council in March 2000,^[146] which invited European Ministers of Education to reflect together on the "concrete objectives of education" and to make recommendations, the European Commission and member countries have worked together on a substantial programme of joint policy on education, known as "Education and Training 2010". This program now covers much of the education and training area, and operates in the format of the Open Method of Coordination.^[147]

The College of Europe (based in Bruges and Natolin) was the first European educational establishment, being founded in 1949. It is financially supported by the EU and many students go on to work with the European institutions. Student's places are allocated according to the size of the member state, so it is seen as a reproduction of European society.^[148]

[edit] Science

Main article: Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development

Activity of the EU in science began in 1984 with the first Framework Programme for scientific research and development. The aims of EU scientific policy may be summarised as coordinating European research policy and those of member states, and using scientific research to stimulate and support other EU policies (such as environmental protection) or activities (such as industrial development and innovation). It has traditionally been carried out by providing funds for open calls for transnational research projects on a wide range of topics selected by the EU. The current Seventh Framework Programme continued these calls for international project, but has also provided funds for the European Research Council, an independent body which allocates research funding without the requirement for trans-nationality.^[149]

Since January 2000 the European Commission has set its sights on a wider objective, known as the European Research Area. This has the support of all member states, and extends the existing financing structure of the frameworks. The research area is based on voluntary participation of individual member states (i.e. it is an open method of coordination project). It aims to focus on joint policy development and coordination, agreeing on joint objectives to facilitate the transfer of knowledge and the mobility of researchers between countries, improving the conditions within which researcher careers develop, encouraging links between business and industry and removing among others legal and administrative barriers.^[150]

In further effort to build a European science base, and to improve the competitive edge of the EU in the area of innovation and technology, the commission has proposed the foundation of a European Institute of Innovation and Technology. Whether this plan will include its own campus, or will be mainly a network of existing research facilities in the EU is not yet decided.^[151]